Francisco de Paula Santander

Francisco José de Paula Santander y Omaña was born in Villa del Rosario, in the Pamplona Province of the Viceroyalty of New Granada not far from Cúcuta, on April 2, 1792. 11 days later on April 13 he was baptized at the Santa Ana chapel in Villa del Rosario. His parents were Juan Agustín Santander Colmenares who was governor of the rural town of San Faustino de los Ríos as well as a cocoa and coffee plant grower, his mother; Antonia Manuela de Omaña Rodríguez. Both were descendants of aristocratic Spanish families who had settled in the New Kingdom of Granada. The couple had two children before Santander, a boy Pedro José and a girl Josefa Teresa who died in their infancy. 2 years after Santander was born the couple had another girl Josefa Dolores. Santander grew up in a family that was both socially and economically privileged and that had a large influence in the region where he was born through the ownership of various haciendas and properties.

He received his primary education in a private school in Villa del Rosario, and upon becoming literate became a voracious reader poring through the various books his father's library had. He was also taught Latin by a local clergyman. Even at a young age Santander noticed how there was considerable lack of schools for public education as well as trained teachers in the New Kingdom of Granada. Discrimination based on social class often meant that the majority of the population was excluded from a getting even a primary education, and even those who did receive one were taught a very basic curriculum that was often a victim of censorship by colonial authorities. This left a lasting impact on Santander who later in life as President would implement a policy of promoting creating public schools with trained teachers operated by the government for the general population.

As Santander's family was an aristocratic one, it was common for the family to send their children to receive further education in the viceregal capital, Santa Fé. In the capital there were essentially 2 career paths offered by higher education institutions, those being Law or Religion. Juan Agustin Santander then asked his brother-in-law, the priest Nicolás Mauricio de Omaña y Rodriguez, to try to get the young Francisco de Paula a scholarship at the Colegio de San Bartolomé. Santander now 13, was sent by his father Juan Agustin to Santa Fe in 1805 and enrolled in the Colegio Mayor y Seminario de San Bartolomé.

After arriving in Santa Fe, the young Francisco de Paula lived in the Colegio de San Bartolomé where his maternal uncle lived at that time, the priest Nicolás Mauricio de Omaña, who occupied the position of vice-rector of that establishment. Nicolás Mauricio de Omaña was a well known figure in the city, and was friends with many of the enlightened and cultured criollos of Santa Fe. His teachings had a large influence over the young Santander who wrote in his memoirs that his uncle had taught him " To know the justice, convenience and need for these countries to shake Spanish domination."

This sentiment was shared by many of the professors at the Colegio Mayor de San Bartolomé who would also play a big role in the independence movement. By 1808, Santander had received his secondary education and began to study law at the University of Santo Tomás. The education he received at the Colegio de San Bartolomé left a big impact on Santander. The legal doctrines extracted from the Roman, Spanish and Indian laws shaped his thinking. This helped him to later organize Colombia with exemplary method and order.

As a young law student, Santander was finishing his studies at the University of Santo Tomás when he witnessed first hand the events of the Revolt of July 20, 1810, which would be later known as the cry of independence, where the criollos of Santa Fe revolted against to the Viceregal government of Viceroy Antonio José Amar y Borbón and began the establishment of juntas in 1810, which began the process of independence in New Granada. At the age of 18, Santander abandoned his studies and enlisted on October 26, 1810, as a sub-lieutenant in the National Guard ("Guardias Nacionales") infantry battalion as a flag-bearer. In 1811 the Government of Santa Fe, seeking to impose their hegemony over the other provinces that had begun to form their own independent juntas, deployed a number of military expeditions to incorporate these provinces. The young Santander would be part of a military expedition of some 300 men under the command of cartagenian captain Manuel del Castillo y Rada to the Mariquita province. This expedition would culminate successfully with the Mariquita province being successfully annexed into the Cundinamarca province, with this his unit returned to Santa Fe in June 1811. After returning to Santa Fe Santander was assigned to the Military Inspection Unit of Santa Fe. In January 1812 general Antonio Baraya returned to Santa Fe after having defeated the Royalist forces who had tried to reconquer the independent cities of the Cauca Valley in the northern part of the Popayán Province, as a result of this Santander was made his secretary on January 17, 1812.

That same year a conflict would arise between the 2 main groups of New Granadan Patriots; the Centralists in Santa Fe under the leadership of Antonio Nariño and the Federalists under the leadership of Camilo Torres who had set up a federal congress in Tunja, this congress had gathered delegates from 5 provinces in New Granada to form a confederation through the Federation Act of 1811 creating the United Provinces of New Granada. Nariño refused to recognize the authority of this Union and thus dispatched a force under the command of general Antonio Baraya to dissolve the congress in Tunja and reincorporate these provinces back under the authority of Santa Fe. Santander as Baraya's secretary, was part of this force as they set out in April 1812, Baraya however along with all his officers including Santander would defect to the Federalist United Provinces of New Granada and recognized the authority of the Federal congress. Santander would then be promoted two times in quick succession by the Federal congress, being promoted to lieutenant on May 25, 1812 and to captain of June 1, 1812.

The tensions between the Federalists and Centralists would eventually burst into a civil war in December 1812 when the two armies faced each other at the Battle of Ventaquemada where the Federalists turned back another Centralist attempt to advance on Tunja forcing them to retreat back to Santa Fe. The Federalist Army while victorious did not pursue Centralists immediately, and waited a week before doing so as they reached Santa Fe in January 1813. At the Battle of San Victorino on January 9, 1813 the Federalists encircled the city taking key vantage points such as Monserrate from the west while penetrating the city through the San Victorino neighborhood. Despite the Federalists having a numerical advantage, Nariño had successfully mounted an effective defense since the Federalists hadn't pressed their advantage after Ventaquemada resulting in a resounding defeat for the Federalists. Captain Santander was wounded and taken prisoner along with 23 other officers as a result of the battle, his wounds were so grave that he himself said: "That only a miracle of Providence could have saved me."

Santander would remain in captivity for just a month as he was later exchanged in a prisoner swap when the Centralists and Federalists signed a truce ending the conflict as both sides became alarmed by the Royalist threat in the south and north of the country. After this exchange he arrived in the federal capital of Tunja on February 10, 1813, where congress promoted him to the rank of sergeant major.

Cúcuta Campaign

After receiving his promotion, Santander was then assigned to the 5th Battalion of the Union under the command of now Colonel Castillo y Rada, with orders to march at once to the city of Cúcuta in order to repel an imminent Royalist Invasion from Venezuela. He arrived in the valley in March 1813 after the neogranadine victory at the Battle of Cúcuta had repelled the Royalist Invasion. This victory had been the work of exiled Venezuelan Colonel Simón Bolívar, this would be the first time the two would meet. Santander later participated in a cross-border incursion into Venezuela on April 13 when he and his men under Castillo y Rada attacked the remaining Royalist forces that had been repelled in the Battle of Cúcuta at La Grita. Santander took command of the 1st and 3rd companies of the 5th battalion of the Union and attacked the royalist left flank. The attack was a success and allowed the patriots to take control of the towns of La Grita and Bailadores. Santander's actions in the battle earned him a commendation by part of Bolívar in his official report to the Federal congress. However he and Castillo y Rada would come into conflict with Bolívar's plans to conduct an invasion to liberate Venezuela, with Santander and Castillo y Rada argued that deploying the New Granadan army across the border on a liberation campaign would deprive the republic of its forces necessary for its defense. The Federal Congress in Tunja however would promote Bolívar to general and authorize the expedition disregarding both their opinions on the matter.

After receiving confirmation that Bolívar would indeed begin his campaign to liberate Venezuela, Castillo y Rada resigned his command in protest and returned to Cartagena where he was named military commander there. This left his army, the 5th Line Battalion, now under the command of Manuel Ricaurte who also resigned leaving the command of the troops to Santander. Santander did not accompany Bolívar in his campaign but instead remained per Bolívar's command in Cúcuta to defend it from a possible threat to Bolívar's rear. The circumstances as to why Santander remained in Cúcuta and did not accompany Bolívar are controversial, in a letter to the president of the Federal congress he states.Stopped my march to the army of Venezuela for the commissions I received from the supreme congress, before the term of fifteen days was fulfilled, for which General Bolívar allowed me to come to Cúcuta from La Grita to carry the particular interests of the 5th battalion that I then commanded accidentally, the command of the Cúcuta valley fell on me by chance, which I never requested.This account coincides with the that of Colombian historian Jose Manuel Restrepo who wrote that: To defend the valleys of Cúcuta, he left two hundred and ninety men commanded by Sergeant Major Francisco de Paula Santander, of the militias of Cartagena, who had been claimed the Government of that province. Given these provisions, Bolívar extended his campaign headquarters to give independence and freedom to Venezuela, his beloved homeland".However, another account provided by Bolívar's Irish aid-de-camp Daniel Florence O'Leary describes that there was serious confrontation between the two with Bolívar in a severe tone ordering Santander to "march at once" barking at him "You have no choice in the matter! March! Either you shoot me or by God, I will certainly shoot you." This account of events has been called into question due to the fact the O'Leary was not present at the time of these events and wouldn't arrive in Venezuela to join Bolívar until 1818 some 5 years later.

On May 14, 1813, Bolívar departed for Venezuela with the army of the United Provinces and would begin what would be later known as the Admirable Campaign. In Cúcuta, for the defense of this strategic border city 21-year-old Sergeant Major Santander had been officially left with 80 soldiers, 72 working muskets, and 1800 paper cartridges, this force would be later augmented to around 200 with troops recruited from the area. Over the next months Santander would wage a brilliant campaign in defending the city from Royalist Invasions dispatched from their stronghold in Maracaibo. He often had to do this at a numerical disadvantage as well as with a limited supply of munitions. He fought off these attempts at Loma Pelada on August 13, San Faustino on September 30, and Limoncito and Capacho on October 6 and 10, however due to his small force and limited number of munitions he was unable to pursue these attackers allowing them to regroup in Venezuela.

From October 10 to 18, a large Royalist force under the command of Bartolomé Lizón invaded the valley from four different points with 1,300 troops in what would be known as the Battle of Llano de Carrillo. With only 260 troops, Santander convened a war council with his officers and realizing that their position was untenable given the number of enemy troops, ordered the evacuation of Cúcuta and began a withdrawal towards Pamplona positioning himself in an area known as Llanura de Carrillo. Lizón was informed of this by Royalist sympathizers when he took Cúcuta and attacked Santander's forces on October 18 in only what could be described as a massacre. Of the 260 men Santander had, only 50 survived, many Patriot prisoners were executed by order of Lizon along with their supporters in Cúcuta and Pamplona including many of Santander's own family members.

The defeat at the Llanura de Carrillo and the loss of Cúcuta was bitter event for Santander he wrote to Congress "asking for a court martial" which the congress refused, he then asked "that he be removed from the army for his failures" which was refused as well. In Tunja congress named Gregor MacGregor as the commander of the Army of the North and dispatched him immediately, Santander would be his second-in-command. In early 1814, this army waged a successful counteroffensive to reconquer the Cúcuta Valley and forced Lizon back into Venezuela. For his actions during the counteroffensive, congress promoted Santander to Colonel on May 31, 1814. MacGregor would not remain commander for long however as he resigned his commission due to serious health problems.

Santander was described as relatively tall compared to his contemporaries, as well as having a "good figure" but later in life became more portly. He was also described as having a serious tone and of having good oratory skills when he talked and of having a strong Cucuteño accent. Personality wise, Santander was described as a hard worker and a voracious reader who was serious and behaved much like the military officers of his time, however once he became more involved in politics his personality became more jovial and that of an intellectual. Santander also enjoyed conversing with people and could often be found conversing with anyone regardless of social class or economic status. He often attended parties and balls, and was an avid lover of popular music and art.

While much is known about Santander's public life as he left a rich amount of documents and letters, his personal life remains much of a mystery. Many of his personal letters were burned as per his instructions laid out in his last testament, his letters to his lover Nicolasa Ibáñez were taken by her when she moved to Europe and have never been found.

Santander's father died in 1808 while he was studying in Santa Fe, his mother died in 1819 while he was on campaign during the New Granada campaign of 1819. Santander had only one sibling who survived to adulthood, his sister Maria Josefa, whom he was very close to. On July 19, 1820 she married a Venezuelan man, Colonel José María Briceño Méndez who had been wounded during the war of independence and was the brother of Colonel Pedro Briceño who also took part in New Granada Campaign of 1819 and was wounded at the Battle of Vargas Swamp. He maintained a good relationship with his brother-in-law, who even accompanied him during his march to Cartagena when he was exiled.

Initially, Santander and Bolívar were considered close friends and allies, but gradually political and ideological differences emerged. It is considered by modern scholars that Santander believed in the sanctity of constitutional government and in the rule of law, perhaps to a greater degree than Bolívar, who would have allegedly thought that those concerns were secondary to what he perceived as the actual needs and solutions that historical circumstances demanded, and thus could be subject to flexibility.

In 1826, when the first Venezuelan uprising occurred, Santander and Bolívar came to disagree about how to handle the situation. Santander believed that the rebels, led by José Antonio Páez and federalist sympathizers, should be punished or at least made to openly submit to the established constitutional order. When Bolívar, who had returned from Peru and reassumed his executive powers, arranged for an amnesty and placed Páez as supreme military chief of the department of Venezuela, Santander felt that the central government's authority and the rule of law were being undermined by the constitutional President himself in a personalist manner.

Santander also disagreed with Bolívar's attempt to promote a reform of the 1821 constitution before it was legally permitted (the constitution stated that ten years had to go by), and especially with Bolívar's attempted nationwide implementation of the constitution that he had previously drafted for Bolivia, which among other provisions called for a lifelong presidency with the ability to select a direct successor. In Santander's opinion, this could place the country dangerously close to monarchism..

In 1828, growing internal conflicts continued. Santander was elected as one of the delegates to the Ocaña constitutional convention, during which both his supporters and other opposition political factions blocked Bolívar's attempts at reform. This led to the sudden exit of many of the delegates supporting Bolívar, who disagreed with the Convention's potential outcome.

These events eventually led Bolívar to declare himself dictator in August of that year, while the office of the vice president was abolished.

Santander and his political sympathizers felt that this act betrayed liberalism and the ideology of the Age of Enlightenment, some even comparing Bolívar to Napoleon or Julius Caesar.

On September 25, 1828, Bolívar escaped an assassination attempt. Among those blamed was Santander who, in a quick military trial headed by General Rafael Urdaneta, was originally sentenced to die without specific proof of his participation in the event, but Bolívar pardoned him, commuted his sentence and ordered his exile.

Even today, the details are not totally clear and the evidence appears to be inconclusive. Some historians consider that Santander knew about the possibility of an assassination attempt and initially opposed it, but eventually allowed it to happen without his direct participation. This position was eventually assumed by Santander himself later in his life. Others consider that Santander may have been involved in the plan from the beginning as it would benefit him politically, though no direct proof of his role has been found.