Sigismund II Augustus

Second marriage

In July or August 1547, two years after Elizabeth's death, Sigismund Augustus and Barbara Radziwiłł married in secret, without the knowledge of Sigismund the Old and Bona. It has been suspected by many historians that the cause of the wedding was presumption of the bride's pregnancy. Barbara was indeed reported to miscarry in November of the same year, in the letter sent to Sigismund Augustus; however the wording used in the text suggests that her pregnancy would be early, probably conceived in September or October, already few months after the wedding, meaning it wasn't the reason for the ceremony. In the writing to his cousin, Albert of Prussia, Sigismund Augustus himself as the reason for marriage to Barbara cited love.

The wedding was announced by the young King to his parents and Polish nobility in February 1548 in Piotrków Trybunalski. Sigismund the Old, after initial acceptance, eventually decided to oppose his son's marriage. He was supported in his actions by Bona. Sigismund Augustus refused to renounce his wife, however, he did not proclaim her the Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania until his father's death. The older King died on 1 April 1548, leaving his son as sole ruler and thereby making him free to declare Barbara the Queen and Grand Duchess on the 17 of the same month.

Recognition of marriage with Barbara

Struggle with opposition

From the outset of his reign, Sigismund Augustus came into collision with the country's privileged Polish nobility, after many of them refused to recognize his marriage to Barbara and accept her as their Queen.

Barbara was despised by Queen Bona, who attempted to annul the marriage at any cost, and who departed from Wawel and went to Mazovia where she established her own small courtly entourage.. The agitation was also abundant at Sigismund's first Sejm (parliament) sitting on 31 October 1548, where the deputies threatened to renounce their allegiance unless the King repudiated Barbara. The nobles portrayed Barbara as an opportunistic prostitute who charmed the king for her own benefit. The young monarch even considered abdicating. To avoid an armed rebellion, Sigismund also formed an alliance with his former father-in-law, Ferdinand I Habsburg in 1549.

Unlike her predecessor, Barbara was disliked by the royal court and led a more secluded life with Sigismund Augustus, who was deeply in love with her. On the other hand, she was ambitious, intelligent, perceptive and had an exemplary taste in fashion. She always wore precious pearl necklaces when sitting for portraits. The mutual admiration between Sigismund and Barbara made the relationship "one of the greatest love affairs in Polish history".

Sigismund Augustus provided luxurious lifestyle and expensive gifts for his wife at Wawel Castle since her arrival in Kraków on 13 February 1549. The royal pair often visited royal hunting residency in Niepołomice.

The King also granted Barbara several provinces to administer and provide income. Although ambitious and bright, she showed a lack of interest in political life, but had some influence over decisions made by Sigismund.

Barbara was officially recognized by Polish nobility as legitimate royal wife in 1550, when Sigismund summoned his second Sejm. The matter of her coronation was not discussed but, with the opposition defeated, she was ultimately crowned as Queen of Poland on 7 December 1550 by Primate Mikołaj Dzierzgowski.

Queen Bona also decided to accept her son's marriage, sending a messenger in 1551 who informed Barbara of her decision.

Death of Barbara

During their marriage, Barbara suffered from poor health, particularly stomach and abdominal pain. After the coronation, her condition deteriorated rapidly. She was tormented by strong fever, diarrhea, nausea and lack of appetite. After careful observation by hired medics, a lump was discovered on her stomach filled with pus. Sigismund Augustus gravely despaired and sent for doctors and even folk healers from the entire country. He personally tended to his sick wife despite her foul smell and dedicated himself when necessary; the king hoped to take Barbara to the hunting castle at Niepołomice and ordered to demolish the small city gate so her carriage could pass freely. However, Barbara died on 8 May 1551 in Kraków after continuous pain and agony.

It was her dying wish that she'd be buried in Lithuania, her homeland. The body was transported to Vilnius Cathedral, where she was finally buried on 23 June next to Elizabeth of Austria. Her death was a major blow to Sigismund; he often attended her coffin on foot while being transported to Vilnius in hot weather. Sigismund also became more serious and reserved; he avoided balls, temporarily renounced his mistresses and dressed in black until his death.

The cause of Barbara's death is debatable. Her opponents and family members suggested sexually transmitted diseases due to a number of supposed affairs she had before marrying Sigismund. There were also persistent rumours that she was poisoned by Queen Bona Sforza. However, modern historians and experts point to cervical cancer or uterine inflammation.

Third marriage

The death of Queen Barbara Radziwiłł, five months after her coronation and under distressing circumstances, compelled Sigismund to contract a third, purely political union with his first cousin-once-removed, the Austrian archduchess Catherine, to avoid an Austro-Russian alliance. She was also the sister of his first wife, Elizabeth. Catherine, unlike previous queens, was considered dull and obese. Sigismund II Augustus found her immensely unattractive despite accepting the marriage and organising a pompous wedding ceremony on 30 July 1553. The correspondence between the two remained purely formal and political for the remainder of their lives.

Since her coronation, Catherine acted as Austria's puppet at the Polish court; she was tasked with espionage and obtaining important information for the benefit of the Habsburgs. Sigismund Augustus was aware of the scheme, but by marrying Catherine, he obtained a promise from Austria to stay neutral and abandon plans with Russia. This neutrality was undermined by Catherine's actions, who followed her father's policy and objected to the return of John Sigismund Zápolya and Isabella Jagiellon (Sigismund's sister) to Hungary. She would conspire with the Habsburg envoys prior to an audience with the king. She would also dictate what and how the envoys should express their views. When Sigismund Augustus found out about Catherine's intrigues, he sent her to Radom and excluded her from political life.

Health and final years

Unlike his father, Sigismund Augustus was frail and sickly. Shortly before turning 50, his health rapidly declined. Being involved in many affairs and holding a large number of mistresses, historians agree that the king had venereal disease which caused him to have fertility issues. By 1558 Sigismund had gout and since 1568 he also suffered from kidney stones, which triggered immense pain. He employed numerous medics, healers or even quack doctors and imported expensive ointments from Italy. By the end of his life, the king was losing teeth and vigour, possibly due to tuberculosis. Antonio Maria Graziani recalls that Sigismund was unable to keep standing without a cane when greeting Cardinal Giovanni Francesco Commendone.

The King remained separated from his thirds wife Catherine since 1562. His marriage was a matter of great political import to Protestants and Catholics alike. The Polish Protestants hoped that he would divorce and remarry and thus bring about a breach with Rome at the very crisis of the religious struggle in Poland. Sigismund was not free to remarry until Catherine's death on 28 February 1572, but he followed her to the grave less than six months later. As the King lost all hope of children by his third wife, he was the last male Jagiellon in the direct line so the dynasty was threatened with extinction. He sought to remedy this by adultery with two of the most beautiful of his countrywomen, Barbara Giza (said to physically resemble late queen Barbara Radziwiłł) and Anna Zajączkowska. On 12 September 1571 Barbara ultimately gave birth to a daughter, also named Barbara, whom Sigismund acknowledged as his child.

During spring 1572, Sigismund Augustus became feverish. Untreated tuberculosis made him feeble and impotent, but he was able to travel to his private retreat in Knyszyn. While at Knyszyn, he corresponded with his diplomats and nobles, highlighting that he was feeling well and hoped to recover. Great Marshal Jan Firlej denied these claims and reported that the king was bleeding severely due to consumption and was troubled by pain in the chest and lumbar.

Sigismund died in Knyszyn on 7 July 1572 at 6:00 pm, surrounded by a group of senators and envoys. The official cause of death given by the medics was consumption. His body was placed on a catafalque and remained at the nearby Tykocin Castle until 10 September 1573, when it was transported back to Kraków through Warsaw.

After interring the remains of Barbara Radziwiłł in Vilnius Cathedral in 1551, Sigismund intended to re-bury her in the Church of St. Anne, and it seems from details of his will that he would have preferred to be buried alongside her. He wrote in his will that he wished to be interred together with Barbara in the Church of St. Anne if he died in Lithuania, or in Kraków if he died in Poland. Knyszyn, where Sigimund died, was originally Lithuanian territory; however, it was annexed by the Crown of Poland in 1569. Consequently, he was laid to rest at the Wawel Cathedral on 10 February 1574. Sigismund's wish to have Barbara and Queen Elizabeth reburied in St. Anne's Church was also ignored, and they have remained resting in Vilnius Cathedral.

Sigismund II Augustus was the last male member of the Jagiellonian dynasty. The death of his childless sister, Anna, in 1596 marked the end of the dynasty. His illegitimate daughter by Giza was adopted by her mother's new husband (Michał Woroniecki) and given her stepfather's surname.

In addition to his family connections, Sigismund II Augustus was allied to the Habsburgs as member of the Order of the Golden Fleece.

Religion

In comparison to his staunchly Catholic father, Sigismund Augustus paid little attention to matters of faith and religion. Having a large number of mistresses before, during and after being married, he was viewed by the clergy as an adulterer and libertine. Sigismund was also reasonably tolerant towards minorities and supported nobles of different faith and nationality to be part of the national assembly, the Sejm. He continued his father's policies, but was more accepting of the Protestant Reformation in Poland (only to the status of a minority religion). Several magnates converted to Calvinism or Lutheranism during the Reformation started by Martin Luther and John Calvin, most notably Stanisław Zamoyski, Jan Zamoyski, Mikołaj Rej, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Johannes a Lasco (Jan Łaski) and Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł.

Throughout the 16th century, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski advocated for renouncing Rome's authority and establishing a separate and independent Polish Church. His initiative was chiefly inspired by the creation of the Anglican Church by Henry VIII in 1534. Sigismund II Augustus was lenient towards the idea, particularly due to the sudden spread of Protestantism among courtiers, advisors, nobles and peasants. Calvinism became especially popular among the upper classes as it promoted democratic freedoms and called for rebellion against absolutism, which the privileged Polish nobility favoured. During the 1555 Sejm session in Piotrków, the nobles intensively discussed the rights of priests in the newly proposed Polish Church and demanded the abolition of celibacy. Some Catholic bishops were supportive of the concepts and acknowledged the need for uniting Poland, Lithuania, Prussia and their vassals under a common religion. Sigismund agreed to the postulates, however, under the condition that Pope Paul IV agreed. Instead, Paul IV was enraged that such a proposition emerged for him to accept; he declined and refused to grant consent. Facing potential excommunication, the assembly were forced to abandon their plans. Nevertheless, Protestantism continued to flourish and spread. In 1565, the Polish Brethren came into existence as a Nontrinitarian sect of Calvinism.

One year after Sigismund's death, the Warsaw Confederation was adopted as the first European act granting religious freedoms. Despite this, Protestantism in Poland ultimately declined during the fierce Counter-Reformation measures under the despotic and arch-Catholic Sigismund III Vasa, who ruled for nearly 45 years. For instance, the Polish Brethren were banned, hunted down, and their leaders executed.

Marriages and issue

Sigismund II Augustus married his first cousin once removed Elizabeth Habsburg on 6 May 1543. They were childless.

After Elizabeth's death on 15 June 1545, in summer 1547, he married his long-time companion – a Lithuanian noblewoman, Barbara Radziwiłł. Their marriage possibly resulted in two miscarried pregnancies:

First miscarriage reportedly happened after Barbara's long and tiring journey from Vilnius to Dubingiai, on 20 November 1547. Some modern historians speculate that what happened was not the pregnancy loss but that the royal wife instead experienced bleeding that was an early sign of neoplastic disease. Nevertheless, an event was reported as a miscarriage in the letter written to the King by Barbara's courtier and medic, Stanisław Dowojno.

In the letter written to Barbara on 2 June 1548, Sigismund expressed his joy after she had informed him of another pregnancy. The Queen was either mistaken or miscarried shortly afterwards; it was reported she had fallen ill later in June, possibly as the result of the pregnancy loss.

Barbara died on 8 May 1551. Sigismund II then took his former sister-in-law, Catherine of Austria, as his third wife on 30 July 1553. They expected one child during their marriage:

In April 1554, it was announced that Catherine was pregnant. In October of the same year, the Queen wrote in a letter to her mother-in-law that there would be no child as "all signs failed". No birth was recorded and, while Catherine suffered haemorrhages during her alleged pregnancy, miscarriage was also not reported to have happened. Sigismund later made two contradictory statements on the matter: that either Catherine pretended she is pregnant with the goal to present him with non-royal foundling, or that "because of the hatred to Poland, she made an effort to achieve miscarriage". Modern researchers' opinions varied whether the Queen lost the child or was not pregnant, with suggestions that she might have suffered from the false pregnancy.

In 1571, Sigismund took as his mistress Barbara Giza, who was said to be his late second wife's look-alike. They had one child:

Barbara (born 12 September 1571, died after 5 June 1615). Later adopted by her stepfather, Michał Woroniecki. Married Jakub Zawadzki, scribe of the Crown's Treasure.

There is also a record made by chronicler Walerian Nekanda Trepka about another illegitimate daughter, born by an otherwise unknown woman of the surname "Relska", and married to a nobleman Cieszkowski. Modern research suggests that the mother's name was in fact "Regina Rylska" (née Szafarz, secundo voto Lachowska), and her and the King's presumed daughter was:

Barbara (born around 1560), who was legally the child of her mother's first husband (Jan Rylski); first married Mikołaj Bronowski, then Jan Cieszkowski.